.\" Copyright (c) 1980 Regents of the University of California.
.\" All rights reserved.  The Berkeley software License Agreement
.\" specifies the terms and conditions for redistribution.
.\"
.\"	@(#)ch2.n	6.2 (Berkeley) 5/14/86
.\"
.\" $Header: ch2.n,v 1.7 83/07/30 14:42:38 layer Exp $
.Lc Data\ Structure\ Access 2
.pp
The following functions allow one to create and manipulate the various types
of lisp data structures.
Refer to \(sc1.2 for details of the data structures known to 
.Fr .
.sh 2 Lists \n(ch 1
.pp
The following functions exist for the creation and manipulating of lists.
Lists are composed of a linked list of objects called 
either 'list cells', 'cons cells' or 'dtpr cells'.
Lists are normally terminated with the special symbol 
.b nil .
.b nil 
is both a symbol and a representation for the empty list ().
.sh 3 list\ creation
.Lf cons "'g_arg1 'g_arg2"
.Re
a new list cell whose car is g_arg1 and whose cdr is g_arg2.
.Lf xcons "'g_arg1 'g_arg2"
.Eq
\fI(cons 'g_arg2 'g_arg1)\fP
.Lf ncons "'g_arg"
.Eq 
\fI(cons 'g_arg nil)\fP
.Lf list "['g_arg1 ... ]"
.Re
a list whose elements are the g_arg\fIi\fP.
.Lf append "'l_arg1 'l_arg2"
.Re
a list containing the elements of l_arg1 followed by l_arg2.
.No
To generate the result, the top level list cells of l_arg1 are duplicated
and the cdr of the last list cell is set to point to l_arg2.
Thus this is an expensive operation if l_arg1 is large.
See the descriptions of 
.i nconc 
and 
.i tconc 
for cheaper ways of doing the 
.i append 
if the list l_arg1 can be altered.
.Lf append1 "'l_arg1 'g_arg2"
.Re
a list like l_arg1 with g_arg2 as the last element.
.No
this is equivalent to (append 'l_arg1 (list 'g_arg2)).
.Eb
; A common mistake is using append to add one element to the end of a list
\-> \fI(append '(a b c d) 'e)\fP
(a b c d . e)
; The user intended to say:
\-> \fI(append '(a b c d) '(e))
(a b c d e)
; better is append1
\-> \fI(append1 '(a b c d) 'e)\fP
(a b c d e)
.Ee
.Lf quote! "[g_qform\fIi\fP] ...[! 'g_eform\fIi\fP] ...  [!! 'l_form\fIi\fP] ..."
.Re
The list resulting from the  splicing and insertion process 
described below.
.No
.i quote!
is the complement of the
.i list
function.  
.i list
forms a list by evaluating each for in the argument list; evaluation is
suppressed if the form is \fIquote\fPed.  In 
.i quote!,
each form is implicitly \fIquote\fPed.  To be evaluated, a form
must be preceded by one of the evaluate operations ! and !!. ! g_eform
evaluates g_form and the value is inserted in the place of the call;
!! l_form evaluates l_form and the value is spliced into the place of
the call.
.br
.sp
`Splicing in' means that the parentheses surrounding the list are removed
as the example below shows.
Use of the evaluate operators can occur at any level in a
form argument.
.br
.sp
Another way to get the effect of the \fIquote!\fP function is to use
the backquote character macro (see \(sc 8.3.3).
.Eb
\fI(quote! cons ! (cons 1 2) 3) = (cons (1 . 2) 3)\fP
\fI(quote! 1 !! (list 2 3 4) 5) = (1 2 3 4 5)\fP
\fI(setq quoted 'evaled)(quote! ! ((I am  ! quoted))) = ((I am evaled))\fP
\fI(quote! try ! '(this ! one)) = (try (this ! one))\fP
.Ee

.Lf bignum-to-list "'b_arg"
.Re
A list of the fixnums which are used to represent the bignum.
.No
the inverse of this function is
.i list-to-bignum.
.Lf list-to-bignum "'l_ints"
.Wh
l_ints is a list of fixnums.
.Re
a bignum constructed of the given fixnums.
.No
the inverse of this function is
.i bignum-to-list.

.sh 3 list\ predicates 
.Lf dtpr "'g_arg"
.Re
t iff g_arg is a list cell.
.No
that (dtpr '()) is nil.  The name \fBdtpr\fP is
a contraction for ``dotted pair''.
.Lf listp "'g_arg"
.Re
t iff g_arg is a list object or nil.
.Lf tailp "'l_x 'l_y"
.Re
l_x, if a list cell
.i eq
to l_x is found by
.i cdr ing
down l_y zero or more times, nil otherwise.
.Eb
\-> \fI(setq x '(a b c d) y (cddr x))\fP
(c d)
\-> \fI(and (dtpr x) (listp x))\fP	; x and y are dtprs and lists
t
\-> \fI(dtpr '())\fP		; () is the same as nil and is not a dtpr
nil
\-> \fI(listp '())\fP 		; however it is a list
t
\-> \fI(tailp y x)\fP
(c d)
.Ee
.Lf length "'l_arg"
.Re
the number of elements in the top level of list l_arg.
.sh 3 list\ accessing
.Lf car "'l_arg"
.Lx cdr "'l_arg"
.Re the appropriate part of
.i cons
cell.
(\fIcar\fP (\fIcons\fP x y)) is always x,
(\fIcdr\fP (\fIcons\fP x y)) is always y.
In
.Fr ,
the cdr portion is located first in memory.
This is hardly noticeable, and we mention it
primarily as a curiosity.
.Lf c\.\.r "'lh_arg"
.Wh 
the .. represents any positive number of \fBa\fP's and \fBd\fP's.
.Re
the result of accessing the list structure in the way determined by
the function name.
The \fBa\fP's and \fBd\fP's are read from right to left, a 
.b d
directing the access down the cdr part of the list cell and an
.b a
down the car part.
.No
lh_arg may also be nil, and it is guaranteed that the car and cdr of nil
is nil.
If lh_arg is a hunk, then \fI(car\ 'lh_arg)\fP is the same as 
\fI(cxr\ 1\ 'lh_arg)\fP and  \fI(cdr\ 'lh_arg)\fP is the same
as \fI(cxr\ 0\ 'lh_arg)\fP.
.br
It is generally hard to read and understand the context
of functions with large strings of 
.b a 's
and
.b d 's,
but these functions are supported by rapid accessing and open-compiling
(see Chapter 12).
.Lf nth "'x_index 'l_list"
.Re
the nth element of l_list, assuming zero-based index.
Thus (nth 0 l_list) is the same as (car l_list).
.i nth
is both a function, and a compiler macro, so that
more efficient code might be generated than for
.i nthelem
(described below).
.No
If x_arg1 is non-positive or greater than the length
of the list, nil is returned. 
.Lf nthcdr "'x_index 'l_list"
.Re
the result of \fIcdr\fPing down the list l_list x_index times.
.No
If x_index is less than 0, then \fI(cons\ nil\ 'l_list)\fP is returned.
.Lf nthelem "'x_arg1 'l_arg2"
.Re
The x_arg1'\fIst\fP element of the list l_arg2.
.No
This function comes from the PDP-11 Lisp system.
.Lf last "'l_arg"
.Re
the last list cell in the list l_arg.
.Ex
\fIlast\fP does NOT return the last element of a list!
.br
\fI(last '(a b))\fP = (b)
.Lf ldiff "'l_x 'l_y"
.Re
a  list  of all
elements in l_x but not in l_y
, i.e., the list difference of
l_x and l_y.
.No
l_y must be a tail of l_x, i.e.,
.i eq
to the result of applying some number of \fIcdr\fP's
to l_x.  
Note  that  the  value  of  \fIldiff\fP  is  always  new  list
structure unless l_y is nil, in which case \fI(ldiff l_x nil)\fP is l_x
itself.
If l_y  is  not  a  tail  of  l_x, \fIldiff\fP generates an error.
.Ex
\fI(ldiff 'l_x (member 'g_foo 'l_x))\fP gives all elements
in l_x up to the first g_foo.
.sh 3 list\ manipulation
.Lf rplaca "'lh_arg1 'g_arg2"
.Re
the modified lh_arg1.
.Se
the car of lh_arg1 is set to  g_arg2.
If lh_arg1 is a hunk then the second element of the hunk is set to g_arg2.
.Lf rplacd "'lh_arg1 'g_arg2"
.Re
the modified lh_arg1.
.Se
the cdr of lh_arg2 is set to g_arg2.
If lh_arg1 is a hunk then the first element of the hunk is set to g_arg2.

.Lf attach "'g_x 'l_l"
.Re
l_l whose 
.i car
is now g_x, whose 
.i cadr 
is the original \fI(car\ l_l)\fP, 
and whose 
.i cddr 
is the original \fI(cdr\ l_l)\fP.
.No
what happens is that g_x is added to the 
beginning of list l_l  yet maintaining the same list cell  at the 
beginning of the list.
.Lf delete "'g_val 'l_list ['x_count]"
.Re
the result of splicing g_val from the top level of
l_list no more than x_count times.
.No
x_count defaults to a very large number, thus if x_count is not given, all
occurrences of g_val are removed from the top level of l_list.
g_val is compared with successive 
.i car 's
of l_list using the function
.i equal .
.Se
l_list is modified using rplacd, no new list cells are used.
.Lf delq "'g_val 'l_list ['x_count]"
.Lx dremove "'g_val 'l_list ['x_count]"
.Re
the result of splicing g_val from the top level of l_list no more than
x_count times.
.No
.i delq 
(and 
.i dremove )
are the same as 
.i delete 
except that 
.i eq
is used for comparison instead of 
.i equal .
.Eb
; note that you should use the value returned by \fIdelete\fP or \fIdelq\fP
; and not assume that g_val will always show the deletions.
; For example

\-> \fI(setq test '(a b c a d e))\fP
(a b c a d e)
\-> \fI(delete 'a test)\fP
(b c d e)         ; the value returned is what we would expect	
\-> \fItest\fP
(a b c d e)       ; but test still has the first a in the list!
.Ee
.Lf remq "'g_x 'l_l ['x_count]"
.Lx remove "'g_x 'l_l"
.Re
a 
.i copy
of l_l with all top level elements
.i equal
to g_x removed.
.i remq
uses 
.i eq
instead of
.i equal
for comparisons.
.No
remove does not modify its arguments like 
.i delete ,
and
.i delq 
do.
.Lf insert "'g_object 'l_list 'u_comparefn 'g_nodups"
.Re
a list consisting of l_list with g_object destructively inserted
in a place determined by the ordering function u_comparefn.
.No
\fI(comparefn 'g_x 'g_y)\fP
should return something non-nil if g_x can precede g_y in sorted order,
nil if g_y must precede g_x.
If u_comparefn is nil, alphabetical order
will be used.  
If g_nodups is non-nil, an element will not be inserted if an
equal element is already in the list.
.i insert
does binary search to determine where to insert the new element.
.Lf merge "'l_data1 'l_data2 'u_comparefn"
.Re
the merged list of the two input sorted lists l_data1 and l_data1
using binary comparison function u_comparefn.  
.No
\fI(comparefn 'g_x 'g_y)\fP
should return something non-nil if g_x can precede g_y in sorted order,
nil if g_y must precede g_x.  If u_comparefn is nil, 
alphabetical order
will be used.  u_comparefn should be thought of as "less than or equal".
.i merge
changes both of its data arguments.
.Lf subst "'g_x 'g_y 'l_s"
.Lx dsubst "'g_x 'g_y 'l_s"
.Re
the result of substituting g_x for all 
.i equal
occurrences of g_y  at all levels in l_s.  
.No
If g_y is a symbol, 
.i eq
will be used for comparisons.
The function
.i subst
does not modify l_s 
but the function
.i dsubst
(destructive substitution)
does.
.Lf lsubst "'l_x 'g_y 'l_s"
.Re
a copy of l_s  with l_x spliced in for every occurrence of of g_y 
at all levels. 
Splicing in means that the parentheses surrounding the list l_x are removed
as the example below shows.
.Eb
\-> \fI(subst '(a b c) 'x '(x y z (x y z) (x y z)))\fP
((a b c) y z ((a b c) y z) ((a b c) y z))
\-> \fI(lsubst '(a b c) 'x '(x y z (x y z) (x y z)))\fP
(a b c y z (a b c y z) (a b c y z))
.Ee
.Lf subpair "'l_old 'l_new 'l_expr"
.Wh
there are  the same number of elements in l_old as l_new.
.Re
the list l_expr with all occurrences of a object in l_old replaced by
the corresponding one in l_new.
When a substitution is made, a copy of the value to substitute in 
is not made.
.Ex
\fI(subpair '(a c)' (x y) '(a b c d)) = (x b y d)\fP

.Lf nconc "'l_arg1 'l_arg2 ['l_arg3 ...]"
.Re
A list consisting of the elements of l_arg1 followed by the elements of
l_arg2 followed by l_arg3 and so on.
.No
The 
.i cdr 
of the last list cell of l_arg\fIi\fP is changed to point to 
l_arg\fIi+1\fP.
.Eb 
; \fInconc\fP is faster than \fIappend\fP because it doesn't allocate new list cells. 
\-> \fI(setq lis1 '(a b c))\fP
(a b c)
\-> \fI(setq lis2 '(d e f))\fP
(d e f)
\-> \fI(append lis1 lis2)\fP
(a b c d e f)
\-> \fIlis1\fP
(a b c)       ; note that lis1 has not been changed by \fIappend\fP
\-> \fI(nconc lis1 lis2)\fP
(a b c d e f) ; \fInconc\fP returns the same value as \fIappend\fP
\-> \fIlis1\fP
(a b c d e f) ; but in doing so alters lis1
.Ee

.Lf reverse "'l_arg"
.Lx nreverse "'l_arg"
.Re
the list l_arg with the elements at the top
level in reverse  order.
.No
The function
.i nreverse
does the reversal in place,
that is the list structure is modified.
.Lf nreconc "'l_arg 'g_arg"
.Eq
\fI(nconc (nreverse 'l_arg) 'g_arg)\fP

.sh 2 Predicates
.pp
The following functions test for properties of data objects.  
When the result of the test is either 'false' or 'true', then
\fBnil\fP will be returned for 'false' and something other than
\fBnil\fP (often \fBt\fP) will be returned for 'true'.
.Lf arrayp "'g_arg"
.Re
t iff g_arg is of type array.
.Lf atom "'g_arg"
.Re
t iff g_arg is not a list or hunk object.
.No
\fI(atom '())\fP returns t.
.Lf bcdp "'g_arg"
.Re
t iff g_arg is a data object of type binary.
.No
This function is a throwback to the PDP-11 Lisp system.
The name stands for binary code predicate.
.Lf bigp "'g_arg"
.Re
t iff g_arg is a bignum.
.Lf dtpr "'g_arg"
.Re
t iff g_arg is a list cell.
.No
that (dtpr '()) is nil.
.Lf hunkp "'g_arg"
.Re
t iff g_arg is a hunk.
.Lf listp "'g_arg"
.Re
t iff g_arg is a list object or nil.
.Lf stringp "'g_arg"
.Re
t iff g_arg is a string.
.Lf symbolp "'g_arg"
.Re
t iff g_arg is a symbol.
.Lf valuep "'g_arg"
.Re
t iff g_arg is a value cell
.Lf vectorp 'v_vector
.Re
\fBt\fP iff the argument is a vector.
.Lf vectorip 'v_vector
.Re
\fBt\fP iff the argument is an immediate-vector.
.Lf type "'g_arg"
.Lx typep "'g_arg"
.Re
a symbol whose pname describes the type of g_arg.
.Lf signp "s_test 'g_val"
.Re
t iff g_val is a number  and the given test s_test on g_val returns true.
.No
The fact that 
.i signp
simply returns nil if g_val is not a number is probably the most
important reason that 
.i signp
is used.
The permitted values for s_test and what they mean are given in this table.
.(b
.TS
center box;
l l .
s_test	tested

=
l	g_val < 0
le	g_val \(<= 0
e	g_val = 0
n	g_val \(!= 0
ge	g_val \(>= 0
g	g_val > 0
.TE
.)b
.Lf eq "'g_arg1 'g_arg2"
.Re
t if g_arg1 and g_arg2 are the exact same lisp object.
.No
.i Eq
simply tests if g_arg1 and g_arg2 are located in the exact same
place in memory.
Lisp objects which print the same are not necessarily 
.i eq .
The only objects guaranteed to be 
.i eq
are interned symbols with the same print name.
[Unless a symbol is created in a special way (such as with
.i uconcat 
or 
.i maknam )
it will be interned.]
.Lf neq "'g_x 'g_y"
.Re
t if g_x is not 
.i eq
to g_y, otherwise nil.
.Lf equal "'g_arg1 'g_arg2"
.Lx eqstr "'g_arg1 'g_arg2"
.Re
t iff g_arg1 and g_arg2 have the same structure as described below.
.No
g_arg and g_arg2 are 
.i equal
if
.np
they are \fIeq\fP.
.np
they are both fixnums with the same value
.np
they are both flonums with the same value
.np
they are both bignums with the same value
.np
they are both strings and are identical.
.np
they are both lists and their cars and cdrs are
.i equal .
.Eb
; \fIeq\fP is much faster than \fIequal\fP, especially in compiled code,
; however you cannot use \fIeq\fP to test for equality of numbers outside
; of the range -1024 to 1023.  \fIequal\fP will always work.
\-> \fI(eq 1023 1023)\fP
t
\-> \fI(eq 1024 1024)\fP
nil
\-> \fI(equal 1024 1024)\fP
t
.Ee

.Lf not "'g_arg"
.Lx null "'g_arg"
.Re
t iff g_arg is nil.

.Lf member "'g_arg1 'l_arg2"
.Lx memq "'g_arg1 'l_arg2"
.Re
that part of the l_arg2 beginning with the first occurrence
of g_arg1.
If g_arg1 is not in the top level of l_arg2, nil is returned.
.No
.i member 
tests for equality with 
.i equal ,
.i memq 
tests for equality with 
.i eq .

.sh 2 Symbols\ and\ Strings
.pp
In many of the following functions the distinction between symbols and
strings is somewhat blurred.
To remind ourselves of the difference,
a string is a null terminated sequence of characters, stored as
compactly as possible.
Strings are used as constants in
.Fr .
They
.i eval
to themselves.
A symbol has additional structure:
a value, property list, function binding,
as well as its external representation (or print-name).
If a symbol is given to one of the string manipulation functions below, its
print name will be used as the string.
.pp
Another popular way to represent strings in Lisp is as a list of fixnums
which represent characters.
The suffix 'n' to a string manipulation function indicates that it 
returns a string in this form.
.sh 3 symbol\ and\ string\ creation
.Lf concat "['stn_arg1 ... ]"
.Lx uconcat "['stn_arg1 ... ]"
.Re
a symbol whose print name
is the result of concatenating the print names,
string characters or numerical representations
of the sn_arg\fIi\fP.
.No
If no arguments are given, a symbol with a null pname is returned.
\fIconcat\fP places the symbol created on the oblist, the function 
.i uconcat
does the same thing but does not place the new symbol on the oblist.
.Ex
\fI(concat 'abc (add 3 4) "def")\fP = abc7def
.Lf concatl "'l_arg"
.Eq
\fI(apply 'concat 'l_arg)\fP

.Lf implode "'l_arg"
.Lx maknam "'l_arg"
.Wh
l_arg is a list of symbols, strings and small fixnums.
.Re
The symbol whose print name is the result of concatenating the 
first characters of the print names of the symbols and strings
in the list.
Any fixnums are converted to the equivalent ascii character.
In order to concatenate entire strings or print names, use the
function
.i concat .
.No
.i implode 
interns the symbol it creates,
.i maknam 
does not.
.Lf gensym "['s_leader]"
.Re
a new uninterned atom beginning with the first character of s_leader's
pname, or beginning with g if s_leader is not given.
.No
The symbol looks like x0nnnnn where x is s_leader's first character and
nnnnn is the number of times you have called gensym.
.Lf copysymbol "'s_arg 'g_pred"
.Re
an uninterned symbol with the same print name as s_arg.
If g_pred is non nil, then the value, function binding
and property list of the new symbol are made 
.i eq 
to those of s_arg.

.Lf ascii "'x_charnum"
.Wh
x_charnum is between 0 and 255.
.Re
a symbol whose print name is the single character whose fixnum 
representation is x_charnum.

.Lf intern "'s_arg"
.Re
s_arg
.Se
s_arg is put on the oblist if it is not already there.
.Lf remob "'s_symbol"
.Re
s_symbol
.Se
s_symbol is removed from the oblist.
.Lf rematom "'s_arg"
.Re
t if s_arg is indeed an atom.
.Se
s_arg is put on the free atoms list, effectively reclaiming an
atom cell.
.No
This function does 
.i not
check to see if s_arg is on the oblist or is referenced anywhere.
Thus calling 
.i rematom
on an atom in the oblist may result in disaster when that atom cell
is reused!
.sh 3 string\ and\ symbol\ predicates
.Lf boundp "'s_name"
.Re
nil  if s_name is unbound: that is, it has never been given a value.
If x_name has the value g_val, then (nil\ .\ g_val) is returned.
See also 
.i makunbound .
.Lf alphalessp "'st_arg1 'st_arg2"
.Re
t iff the `name' of st_arg1 is alphabetically less than the 
name of st_arg2.  
If st_arg is a symbol then its `name' is its print name.
If st_arg is a string, then its `name' is the string itself.
.sh 3 symbol\ and\ string\ accessing
.Lf symeval "'s_arg"
.Re
the value of symbol s_arg.
.No
It is illegal to ask for the value of an unbound symbol.
This function has the same effect as
.i eval ,
but compiles into much more efficient code.
.Lf get_pname "'s_arg"
.Re
the string which is the print name of s_arg.
.Lf plist "'s_arg"
.Re
the property list of s_arg.
.Lf getd "'s_arg"
.Re
the function definition of s_arg or nil if there is no function definition.
.No
the function definition may turn out to be an array header.
.Lf getchar "'s_arg 'x_index"
.Lx nthchar "'s_arg 'x_index"
.Lx getcharn "'s_arg 'x_index"
.Re
the x_index\fIth\fP character of the print name of s_arg or nil if x_index
is less than 1 or greater than the length of s_arg's print name.
.No
.i getchar 
and 
.i nthchar 
return a symbol with a single character print name,
.i getcharn 
returns the fixnum representation of the character.
.Lf substring "'st_string 'x_index ['x_length]"
.Lx substringn "'st_string 'x_index ['x_length]"
.Re
a string of length at most
x_length starting at x_index\fIth\fP character
in the string.
.No
If x_length is not given, all of the characters for x_index
to the end of the string are returned.
If x_index is negative the string begins at the
x_index\fIth\fP character from the end.
If x_index is out of bounds, nil is returned.
.No
.i substring 
returns a list of symbols, 
.i substringn 
returns a list of fixnums.
If 
.i substringn 
is given a 0 x_length argument then a single fixnum 
which is the x_index\fIth\fP character is returned.
.sh 3 symbol\ and\ string\ manipulation
.Lf set "'s_arg1 'g_arg2"
.Re
g_arg2.
.Se
the value of s_arg1 is set to g_arg2.
.Lf setq "s_atm1 'g_val1 [ s_atm2 'g_val2 ... ... ]"
.Wh
the arguments are pairs of atom names and expressions.
.Re
the last g_val\fIi\fP.
.Se
each s_atm\fIi\fP is set to have the value g_val\fIi\fP.
.No
.i set
evaluates all of its arguments,
.i setq
does not evaluate the s_atm\fIi\fP.
.Lf desetq "sl_pattern1 'g_exp1 [... ...]"
.Re
g_expn
.Se
This acts just like \fIsetq\fP if all the sl_pattern\fIi\fP are symbols.
If sl_pattern\fIi\fP is a list then it  is a template which should
have the same structure as g_exp\fIi\fP
The symbols in sl_pattern are assigned to the corresponding 
parts of g_exp.
(See also
.i setf
)
.Ex
\fI(desetq (a b (c . d)) '(1 2 (3 4 5)))\fP
.br
sets a to 1, b to 2, c to 3, and d to (4 5).

.Lf setplist "'s_atm 'l_plist"
.Re
l_plist.
.Se
the property list of s_atm is set to l_plist.
.Lf makunbound "'s_arg"
.Re
s_arg
.Se
the value of s_arg is made `unbound'.
If the interpreter attempts to evaluate s_arg before it is again 
given a value, an unbound variable error will occur.
.Lf aexplode "'s_arg"
.Lx explode  "'g_arg"
.Lx aexplodec "'s_arg"
.Lx explodec "'g_arg"
.Lx aexploden "'s_arg"
.Lx exploden "'g_arg"
.Re
a list of the characters used to print out s_arg or g_arg.
.No
The functions beginning with 'a' are internal functions which are limited
to symbol arguments.  
The functions 
.i aexplode 
and 
.i explode
return a list of characters which 
.i print
would use to print the argument.  
These characters include all necessary escape characters.
Functions 
.i aexplodec 
and
.i explodec
return a list of characters which
.i patom
would use to print the argument (i.e. no escape characters).
Functions 
.i aexploden 
and 
.i exploden
are similar to 
.i aexplodec 
and 
.i explodec 
except that a list of fixnum equivalents of characters are returned.
.Eb
\-> \fI(setq x '|quote this \e| ok?|)\fP
|quote this \e| ok?|
\-> \fI(explode x)\fP
(q u o t e |\e\e| | | t h i s |\e\e| | | |\e\e| |\e|| |\e\e| | | o k ?)
; note that |\e\e| just means the single character: backslash.
; and |\e|| just means the single character: vertical bar
; and | | means the single character: space

\-> \fI(explodec x)\fP
(q u o t e | | t h i s | | |\e|| | | o k ?)
\-> \fI(exploden x)\fP
(113 117 111 116 101 32 116 104 105 115 32 124 32 111 107 63)
.Ee
.sh 2 Vectors
.pp
See Chapter 9 for a discussion of vectors.
They are less efficient that hunks but more efficient than arrays.
.sh 3 vector\ creation
.Lf new-vector "'x_size ['g_fill ['g_prop]]"
.Re
A \fBvector\fP of length x_size.
Each data entry is initialized to g_fill, or to nil, if the argument g_fill
is not present.
The vector's property is set to g_prop, or to nil, by default.
.Lf new-vectori-byte "'x_size ['g_fill ['g_prop]]"
.Lx new-vectori-word "'x_size ['g_fill ['g_prop]]"
.Lx new-vectori-long "'x_size ['g_fill ['g_prop]]"
.Re
A \fBvectori\fP with x_size elements in it.
The actual memory requirement is two long words + x_size*(n bytes),
where n is 1 for new-vector-byte, 2 for new-vector-word, or 4 for
new-vectori-long.
Each data entry is initialized to g_fill, or to zero, if the argument g_fill
is not present.
The vector's property is set to g_prop, or nil, by default.
.sp 2v
.lp
Vectors may be created by specifying multiple initial values:
.Lf vector "['g_val0 'g_val1 ...]"
.Re
a \fBvector\fP, with as many data elements as there are arguments.
It is quite possible to have a vector with no data elements.
The vector's property will be a null list.
.Lf vectori-byte "['x_val0 'x_val2 ...]"
.Lx vectori-word "['x_val0 'x_val2 ...]"
.Lx vectori-long "['x_val0 'x_val2 ...]"
.Re
a \fBvectori\fP, with as many data elements as there are arguments.
The arguments are required to be fixnums.
Only the low order byte or word is used in the case of vectori-byte
and vectori-word.
The vector's property will be null.
.sh 3 vector\ reference
.Lf vref "'v_vect 'x_index"
.Lx vrefi-byte "'V_vect 'x_bindex"
.Lx vrefi-word "'V_vect 'x_windex"
.Lx vrefi-long "'V_vect 'x_lindex"
.Re
the desired data element from a vector.
The indices must be fixnums.
Indexing is zero-based.
The vrefi functions sign extend the data.
.Lf vprop 'Vv_vect
.Re
The Lisp property associated with a vector.
.Lf vget "'Vv_vect 'g_ind"
.Re
The value stored under g_ind if the Lisp property associated
with 'Vv_vect is a disembodied property list.
.Lf vsize 'Vv_vect
.Lx vsize-byte 'V_vect
.Lx vsize-word 'V_vect
.Re
the number of data elements in the vector.  For immediate-vectors,
the functions vsize-byte and vsize-word return the number of data elements,
if one thinks of the binary data as being comprised of bytes or words.
.sh 3 vector\ modfication
.Lf vset "'v_vect 'x_index 'g_val"
.Lx vseti-byte "'V_vect 'x_bindex 'x_val"
.Lx vseti-word "'V_vect 'x_windex 'x_val"
.Lx vseti-long "'V_vect 'x_lindex 'x_val"
.Re
the datum.
.Se
The indexed element of the vector is set to the value.
As noted above, for vseti-word and vseti-byte, the index
is construed as the number of the data element within
the vector.  It is not a byte address.
Also, for those two functions,
the low order byte or word of x_val is what is stored.
.Lf vsetprop "'Vv_vect 'g_value"
.Re
g_value.  This should be either a symbol
or a disembodied property list whose
.i car
is a symbol identifying the type of
the vector.
.Se
the property list of Vv_vect is set to g_value.
.Lf vputprop "'Vv_vect 'g_value 'g_ind"
.Re
g_value.
.Se
If the vector property of Vv_vect is a disembodied property list,
then vputprop adds the value g_value under the indicator g_ind.
Otherwise, the old vector property is made the first
element of the list.
.sh 2 Arrays
.pp
See Chapter 9 for a complete description of arrays.
Some of these functions are part of a Maclisp array
compatibility package representing only one simple way of using the
array structure of
.Fr .
.sh 3 array\ creation
.Lf marray  "'g_data 's_access 'g_aux 'x_length 'x_delta"
.Re
an array type with the fields set up from the above arguments
in the obvious way (see \(sc 1.2.10).
.Lf *array "'s_name 's_type 'x_dim1 ... 'x_dim\fIn\fP"
.Lx array "s_name s_type x_dim1 ... x_dim\fIn\fP"
.Wh
s_type may be one of t, nil, fixnum, flonum, fixnum-block and 
flonum-block.
.Re
an array of type s_type with n dimensions of extents given by the 
x_dim\fIi\fP.
.Se
If s_name is non nil, the function definition of s_name is
set to the array structure returned.
.No
These 
functions create a Maclisp compatible array.
In 
.Fr
arrays of type t, nil, fixnum and flonum are equivalent and the elements
of these arrays can be any type of lisp object.
Fixnum-block and flonum-block arrays are restricted to fixnums and flonums
respectively and are used mainly to communicate with 
foreign functions (see \(sc8.5).
.No
.i *array 
evaluates its arguments, 
.i array
does not.
.sh 3 array\ predicate
.Lf arrayp "'g_arg"
.Re
t iff g_arg is of type array.
.sh 3 array\ accessors

.Lf getaccess "'a_array"
.Lx getaux "'a_array"
.Lx getdelta "'a_array"
.Lx getdata "'a_array"
.Lx getlength "'a_array"
.Re
the field of the array object a_array given by the function name.
.Lf arrayref "'a_name 'x_ind"
.Re
the x_ind\fIth\fP element of the array object a_name.
x_ind of zero accesses the first element.
.No
.i arrayref
uses the data, length and delta fields of a_name to determine which
object to return.
.Lf arraycall "s_type 'as_array 'x_ind1 ... "
.Re
the element selected by  the indices from the array a_array
of type s_type.
.No
If as_array is a symbol then the function binding of this symbol should
contain an array object.
.br
s_type is ignored by
.i arraycall
but is included for compatibility with Maclisp.
.Lf arraydims "'s_name"
.Re
a list of the type and bounds of the array s_name.
.Lf listarray "'sa_array ['x_elements]"
.Re
a list of all of the elements in array sa_array.
If x_elements
is given, then only the first x_elements are returned.

.Eb
; We will create a 3 by 4 array of general lisp objects
\-> \fI(array ernie t 3 4)\fP
array[12]

; the array header is stored in the function definition slot of the
; symbol ernie
\-> \fI(arrayp (getd 'ernie))\fP
t
\-> \fI(arraydims (getd 'ernie))\fP
(t 3 4)

; store in ernie[2][2] the list (test list)
\-> \fI(store (ernie 2 2) '(test list))\fP
(test list)

; check to see if it is there
\-> \fI(ernie 2 2)\fP
(test list)

; now use the low level function \fIarrayref\fP to find the same element
; arrays are 0 based and row-major (the last subscript varies the fastest)
; thus element [2][2] is the 10th element , (starting at 0).
\-> \fI(arrayref (getd 'ernie) 10)\fP
(ptr to)(test list)    ; the result is a value cell (thus the (ptr to))
.Ee
.sh 3 array\ manipulation
.Lf putaccess "'a_array 'su_func"
.Lx putaux "'a_array 'g_aux"
.Lx putdata "'a_array 'g_arg"
.Lx putdelta "'a_array 'x_delta"
.Lx putlength "'a_array 'x_length"
.Re
the second argument to the function.
.Se
The field of the array object given by the function name is replaced
by the second argument to the function.
.Lf store "'l_arexp 'g_val"
.Wh
l_arexp is an expression
which references an array element.
.Re
g_val
.Se
the array location which contains the element which l_arexp references is 
changed to contain g_val.
.Lf fillarray "'s_array 'l_itms"
.Re
s_array
.Se
the array s_array is filled with elements from l_itms.
If there are not enough elements in l_itms to fill the entire array,
then the last element of l_itms is used to fill the remaining parts
of the array.
.sh 2 Hunks
.pp
Hunks are vector-like objects whose size can range from 1 to 128 elements.
Internally, hunks are allocated in sizes which are powers of 2.
In order to create hunks of a given size, 
a hunk with at least that many elements is allocated
and a distinguished symbol \s-2EMPTY\s0 is placed in those 
elements not requested.
Most hunk functions respect those distinguished symbols, but there are
two 
.i (*makhunk
and
.i *rplacx )
which will overwrite the distinguished symbol.
.sh 3 hunk\ creation
.Lf hunk "'g_val1 ['g_val2 ... 'g_val\fIn\fP]"
.Re
a hunk of length n whose elements are initialized to the g_val\fIi\fP.
.No
the maximum size of a hunk is 128.
.Ex
\fI(hunk 4 'sharp 'keys)\fP = {4 sharp keys}
.Lf makhunk "'xl_arg"
.Re
a hunk of length xl_arg initialized to all nils if xl_arg is a fixnum.
If xl_arg is a list, then we return a hunk of size \fI(length\ 'xl_arg)\fP
initialized to the elements in xl_arg.
.No
\fI(makhunk\ '(a\ b\ c))\fP is equivalent to \fI(hunk\ 'a\ 'b\ 'c)\fP.
.Ex
\fI(makhunk 4)\fP = \fI{nil nil nil nil}\fP
.Lf *makhunk "'x_arg"
.Re
a hunk of size 2\*[x_arg\*] initialized to \s-2EMPTY\s0.
.No
This is only to be used by such functions as \fIhunk\fP and \fImakhunk\fP
which create and initialize hunks for users.
.sh 3 hunk\ accessor
.Lf cxr "'x_ind 'h_hunk"
.Re
element x_ind (starting at 0) of hunk h_hunk.
.Lf hunk-to-list 'h_hunk
.Re
a list consisting of the elements of h_hunk.
.sh 3 hunk\ manipulators
.Lf rplacx "'x_ind 'h_hunk 'g_val"
.Lx *rplacx "'x_ind 'h_hunk 'g_val"
.Re
h_hunk
.Se
Element x_ind (starting at 0) of h_hunk is set to g_val.
.No
.i rplacx 
will not modify one of the distinguished (EMPTY) elements
whereas
.i *rplacx 
will.
.Lf hunksize "'h_arg"
.Re
the size of the hunk h_arg.
.Ex
\fI(hunksize (hunk 1 2 3))\fP = 3
.sh 2 Bcds
.pp
A bcd object contains a pointer to compiled code and to the type of 
function object the compiled code represents.
.Lf getdisc "'y_bcd"
.Lx getentry "'y_bcd"
.Re
the field of the bcd object given by the function name. 
.Lf putdisc "'y_func 's_discipline"
.Re
s_discipline
.Se
Sets the discipline field of y_func to s_discipline.
.sh 2 Structures
.pp
There are three common structures constructed out of list cells: the
assoc list, the property list and the tconc list.
The functions below manipulate these structures.
.sh 3 assoc\ list
.pp
An `assoc list' (or alist) is a common lisp data structure.  It has the
form 
.br
.ce 1
((key1 . value1) (key2 . value2) (key3 . value3) ... (keyn . valuen))
.Lf assoc "'g_arg1 'l_arg2"
.Lx assq "'g_arg1 'l_arg2"
.Re
the first top level element of l_arg2 whose
.i car
is 
.i equal
(with 
.i assoc )
or
.i eq
(with 
.i assq )
to g_arg1.
.No
Usually l_arg2 has an
.i a-list
structure and g_arg1 acts as key.
.Lf sassoc "'g_arg1 'l_arg2 'sl_func"
.Re 
the result of \fI(cond\ ((assoc\ 'g_arg\ 'l_arg2)\ (apply\ 'sl_func\ nil)))\fP
.No
sassoc is written as a macro.
.Lf sassq "'g_arg1 'l_arg2 'sl_func"
.Re 
the result of \fI(cond\ ((assq\ 'g_arg\ 'l_arg2)\ (apply\ 'sl_func\ nil)))\fP
.No
sassq is written as a macro.

.Eb
; \fIassoc\fP or \fIassq\fP is given a key and an assoc list and returns
; the key and value item if it exists, they differ only in how they test
; for equality of the keys.

\-> \fI(setq alist '((alpha . a) ( (complex key) . b) (junk . x)))\fP
((alpha . a) ((complex key) . b) (junk . x))

; we should use \fIassq\fP when the key is an atom
\-> \fI(assq 'alpha alist)\fP
(alpha . a)

; but it may not work when the key is a list
\-> \fI(assq '(complex key) alist)\fP
nil

; however \fIassoc\fP will always work
\-> \fI(assoc '(complex key) alist)\fP
((complex key) . b)
.Ee
.Lf sublis "'l_alst 'l_exp"
.Wh
l_alst is an 
.i a-list .
.Re
the list l_exp with every occurrence of key\fIi\fP replaced by val\fIi\fP.
.No
new list structure is returned to prevent modification of l_exp.
When a substitution is made, a copy of the value to substitute in 
is not made.
.sh 3 property\ list
.pp
A property list consists of an alternating sequence of keys and
values.  Normally a property list is stored on a symbol. A list
is a 'disembodied' property list if it contains an odd number of
elements, the first of which is ignored.
.Lf plist "'s_name"
.Re
the property list of s_name.
.Lf setplist "'s_atm 'l_plist"
.Re
l_plist.
.Se
the property list of s_atm is set to l_plist.

.Lf get "'ls_name 'g_ind"
.Re
the value under indicator g_ind in ls_name's property list if ls_name
is a symbol.
.No
If there is no indicator g_ind in ls_name's property list nil is returned.
If ls_name is a list of an odd number of elements then it is a disembodied
property list. 
\fIget\fP searches a disembodied property list by starting at its 
\fIcdr\fP, and comparing every other element with g_ind, using 
\fIeq\fP.
.Lf getl "'ls_name 'l_indicators"
.Re
the property list ls_name beginning at the first indicator which is
a member of the list l_indicators, or nil if none of the indicators
in l_indicators are on ls_name's property list.
.No
If ls_name is a list, then it is assumed to be a disembodied property
list.

.Lf putprop "'ls_name 'g_val 'g_ind"
.Lx defprop "ls_name g_val g_ind"
.Re
g_val.
.Se
Adds to the property list of ls_name the value g_val under the indicator
g_ind.
.No
.i putprop
evaluates it arguments, 
.i defprop
does not.
ls_name may be a disembodied property list, see \fIget\fP.
.Lf remprop "'ls_name 'g_ind"
.Re
the portion of  ls_name's property list beginning with the 
property under the indicator g_ind.
If there is no g_ind indicator in ls_name's plist, nil is returned.
.Se
the value under indicator g_ind and g_ind itself is removed from 
the property list of ls_name.
.No
ls_name may be a disembodied property list, see \fIget\fP.

.Eb
\-> \fI(putprop 'xlate 'a 'alpha)\fP
a
\-> \fI(putprop 'xlate 'b 'beta)\fP
b
\-> \fI(plist 'xlate)\fP
(alpha a beta b)
\-> \fI(get 'xlate 'alpha)\fP
a
; use of a disembodied property list:
\-> \fI(get '(nil fateman rjf sklower kls foderaro jkf) 'sklower)\fP
kls
.Ee
.sh 3 tconc\ structure
.pp
A tconc structure is a special type of list designed to make it
easy to add objects to the end.
It consists of a list cell whose 
.i car
points to a 
list of the elements added with 
.i tconc
or 
.i lconc
and whose
.i cdr
points to the last list cell of the list pointed to by the 
.i car.
.Lf tconc "'l_ptr 'g_x"
.Wh
l_ptr is a tconc structure.
.Re
l_ptr with g_x added to the end.
.Lf lconc "'l_ptr 'l_x"
.Wh
l_ptr is a tconc structure.
.Re
l_ptr with the list l_x spliced in at the end.
.Eb
; A \fItconc\fP structure can be initialized in two  ways.  
; nil can be given to \fItconc\fP in which case \fItconc\fP will generate 
; a \fItconc\fP structure.

\->\fI(setq foo (tconc nil 1))\fP
((1) 1)

; Since \fItconc\fP destructively adds to 
; the list, you can now add to foo without using \fIsetq\fP again.

\->\fI(tconc foo 2)\fP
((1 2) 2)
\->\fIfoo\fP
((1 2) 2)

; Another way to create a null  \fItconc\fP structure
; is to use \fI(ncons\ nil)\fP.

\->\fI(setq foo (ncons nil))\fP
(nil)
\->\fI(tconc foo 1)\fP
((1) 1)

; now see what \fIlconc\fP can do
\-> \fI(lconc foo nil)\fP
((1) 1)			; no change
\-> \fI(lconc foo '(2 3 4))\fP
((1 2 3 4) 4)
.Ee
.sh 3 fclosures
.pp
An fclosure is a functional object which admits some data
manipulations.  They are discussed in \(sc8.4.
Internally, they are constructed from vectors.
.Lf fclosure "'l_vars 'g_funobj"
.Wh
l_vars is a list of variables, g_funobj is any object
that can be funcalled (including, fclosures).
.Re
A vector which is the fclosure.
.Lf fclosure-alist "'v_fclosure"
.Re
An association list representing the variables in the fclosure.
This is a snapshot of the current state of the fclosure.
If the bindings in the fclosure are changed, any previously
calculated results of
.i fclosure-alist
will not change.
.Lf fclosure-function "'v_fclosure"
.Re
the functional object part of the fclosure.
.Lf fclosurep "'v_fclosure"
.Re
t iff the argument is an fclosure.
.Lf symeval-in-fclosure "'v_fclosure 's_symbol"
.Re
the current binding of a particular symbol in an fclosure.
.Lf set-in-fclosure "'v_fclosure 's_symbol 'g_newvalue"
.Re
g_newvalue.
.Se
The variable s_symbol is bound in the fclosure to g_newvalue.
.sh 2 Random\ functions
.pp
The following functions don't fall into any of the classifications above.
.Lf bcdad "'s_funcname"
.Re
a fixnum which is the address in memory where the function 
s_funcname begins.
If s_funcname is not a machine coded function (binary) then 
.i bcdad 
returns nil.
.Lf copy "'g_arg"
.Re
A structure 
.i equal
to g_arg but with new list cells.
.Lf copyint* "'x_arg"
.Re
a fixnum with the same value as x_arg but in a freshly allocated cell.
.Lf cpy1 "'xvt_arg"
.Re
a new cell of the same type as xvt_arg with the same value as xvt_arg.
.Lf getaddress "'s_entry1 's_binder1 'st_discipline1 [... ... ...]"
.Re
the binary object which s_binder1's  function field is set to.
.No
This looks in the running lisp's symbol table for a symbol with the same
name as s_entry\fIi\fP.
It then creates a binary object
whose entry field points to s_entry\fIi\fP 
and whose discipline is st_discipline\fIi\fP.
This binary object is stored in the function field of s_binder\fIi\fP.
If st_discipline\fIi\fP is nil, then "subroutine" is used by default.
This is especially useful for 
.i cfasl
users.
.Lf macroexpand "'g_form"
.Re
g_form after all macros in it are
expanded.
.No
This function will only macroexpand 
expressions which could be evaluated
and it does not know about the special nlambdas such as 
.i cond
and
.i do ,
thus it misses many macro expansions.
.Lf ptr "'g_arg"
.Re
a value cell initialized to point to g_arg.
.Lf quote "g_arg"
.Re
g_arg.
.No
the reader allows you to abbreviate (quote foo) as 'foo.
.Lf kwote "'g_arg"
.Re
 \fI(list (quote quote) g_arg)\fP.
.Lf replace "'g_arg1 'g_arg2"
.Wh
g_arg1 and g_arg2 must be the same type of lispval and not symbols or hunks.
.Re
g_arg2.
.Se
The effect of
.i replace 
is dependent on the type of the g_arg\fIi\fP although one will notice 
a similarity in the effects.
To understand what 
.i replace
does to fixnum and flonum arguments,
you must first understand that 
such numbers are `boxed' in 
.Fr .
What this means is that if the symbol x has a value 32412, then in
memory the value element of x's symbol structure contains the address of
another word of memory (called a box) with 32412 in it.
.br
.sp
Thus, there are two ways of changing the value of x:
the first is to change
the value element of x's symbol structure to point to a word of memory
with a different value.
The second way is to change the value in the box which x points to.
The former method is used almost all of the time, the latter is
used very rarely and has the potential to cause great confusion.
The function
.i replace
allows you to do the latter, i.e., to actually change the value in
the box.
.br
.sp
You should watch out for these situations.
If you do \fI(setq\ y\ x)\fP,
then both x and y will point to the same box.
If you now \fI(replace\ x\ 12345)\fP,
then y will also have the value 12345.
And, in fact, there may be many other pointers to that box.
.br
.sp
Another problem with replacing fixnums
is that some boxes are read-only.
The fixnums between -1024 and 1023 are stored in a read-only area
and attempts to replace them will result in an "Illegal memory reference"
error (see the description of 
.i copyint*
for a way around this problem).
.br
.sp
For the other valid types, the effect of 
.i replace 
is easy to understand.
The fields of g_val1's structure are made eq to the corresponding fields of
g_val2's structure.
For example, if x  and  y have lists as values then the effect of
\fI(replace\ x\ y)\fP is the same as 
\fI(rplaca\ x\ (car\ y))\fP and \fI(rplacd\ x\ (cdr\ y))\fP.
.Lf scons "'x_arg 'bs_rest"
.Wh
bs_rest is a bignum or nil.
.Re
a bignum whose first bigit is x_arg 
and whose higher order bigits are bs_rest.
.Lf setf "g_refexpr 'g_value"
.No
.i setf
is a generalization of setq.  Information may be stored by
binding variables, replacing entries of arrays, and vectors,
or being put on property lists, among others.
Setf will allow the user to store data into some location,
by mentioning the operation used to refer to the location.
Thus, the first argument may be partially evaluated, but only
to the extent needed to calculate a reference.
.i setf
returns g_value.
(Compare to
.i desetq
)
.Eb
  (setf x 3)        =  (setq x 3)
  (setf (car x) 3)  = (rplaca x 3)
  (setf (get foo 'bar) 3) = (putprop foo 3 'bar)
  (setf (vref vector index) value) = (vset vector index value)
.Ee
.Lf sort "'l_data 'u_comparefn"
.Re
a list of the elements of l_data ordered by the comparison
function u_comparefn.
.Se
the list l_data is modified rather than allocated in new storage.
.No
\fI(comparefn 'g_x 'g_y)\fP should return something
non-nil if g_x can precede g_y in sorted order; nil if g_y must precede
g_x.  
If u_comparefn is nil, 
alphabetical order will be used.
.Lf sortcar "'l_list 'u_comparefn"
.Re
a list of the elements of l_list with the 
.i car 's
ordered by the sort function u_comparefn.
.Se
the list l_list is modified rather than copied.
.No
Like \fIsort\fP, 
if u_comparefn is nil, 
alphabetical order will be used.
